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Original Article
Secure and Energy-Efficient Wireless Sensor Networks through 5G Integration and Quantum Key Distribution
Rasiya Anwar1
Dr. S. Mangayarkarasi2
1 2 Department of Advanced Computing and Analytics, School of Computing, VISTAS, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
Published Online: September-December 2025
Pages: 222-229
Cite this article
↗ https://www.doi.org/10.59256/indjcst.20250403035
References
1. Kaur, G.; Singh, P.; Sharma, R. A comprehensive review on wireless sensor networks: Energy efficiency, security and emerging trends. Sensors 2023, 23, 11245. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23124567
2. Zhao, T.; Li, Y.; Liang, H. Low-power routing strategies for large-scale wireless sensor deployments. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023, 10, 15432–15445.
3. Ahmed, M.; Rehman, S.; Kim, H. Energy-aware cluster-based WSN architectures: A survey of recent advances. ACM Trans. Sen. Netw. 2024, 20, 18.
4. Gupta, R.; Patel, D. 5G-enabled IoT: Performance evaluation for ultra-low-latency sensor communications. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2023, 61, 72–78.
5. Mehmood, A.; Khan, I.; Alazab, A. Edge-assisted 5G IoT networks for real-time analytics: Opportunities and challenges. Future Gener. Comput. Syst. 2024, 152, 389–402.
6. Pirandola, S.; Andersen, U.L.; Banchi, L. Advances in quantum cryptography. Adv. Opt. Photon. 2023, 15, 1–95.
7. Mosca, M.; Muratov, A. Cybersecurity in the quantum era: Assessing post-quantum readiness. IEEE Secur. Priv. 2024, 22, 30–38.
8. Zhang, Z.; Xu, Y.; Huang, H. QKD-enabled IoT: A survey on quantum-safe communication for constrained devices. Sensors 2024, 24, 4560. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/s24124560
9. Ren, L.; Wang, K.; Liu, Y. Experimental QKD in noisy channels: Performance limits and QBER stability. Opt. Express 2023, 31, 31245–31260.
10. Ng, S.; Wong, R. Hybrid classical–quantum architectures for secure distributed systems. In Proceedings of the IEEE Globecom, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 4–8 December 2023; pp. 1–6.
11. Ghiasi, A.; Bahrami, A.; Liu, J. Integrating quantum cryptography into 6G/IoT frameworks: Challenges and future trends. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2024, 20, 1893–1906.
12. Bhattacharya, P.; Chakraborty, R. Security vulnerabilities in modern WSN deployments: A systematic review. Comput. Secur. 2024, 135, 103149.
13. Shor, P.W. Algorithms for quantum computation: Discrete logarithms and factoring. In Proceedings of the 35th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, Santa Fe, NM, USA, 20–22 November 1994; pp. 124–134.
14. Roetteler, M.; Naehrig, M.; Svore, K.M. Quantum resource estimates for computing elliptic curve discrete logarithms. Adv. Cryptol. ASIACRYPT 2023, pp. 241–270.
15. Chen, L.; Jordan, S.; Liu, Y.-K. Post-quantum cryptography and long-term security considerations for IoT networks. NIST Tech. Rep. 2024, 1–45.
16. Scarani, V.; Bechmann-Pasquinucci, H.; Lütkenhaus, N. The security of practical QKD implementations. Rev. Mod. Phys. 2024, 96, 025003.
17. Xu, F.; Ma, X.; Zhang, Q. Quantum key distribution with realistic imperfections: A tutorial. IEEE Trans. Quantum Eng. 2023, 4, 1–25.
18. Sharma, A.; Rao, K. Feasibility of QKD for low-power IoT devices: Modelling and analysis. IEEE Access 2024, 12, 5567–5583.
19. Akhtar, M.; Basu, S. Lightweight QKD integration in WSNs: Energy and security implications. Sensors 2023, 23, 9803.
20. Li, P.; Wang, J.; Han, T. Quantum-secure clustering for wireless sensor networks: A performance study. Ad Hoc Netw. 2024, 159, 103254.
21. Dimitriou, T.; Papadopoulos, P. QBER-driven adaptive key refresh for resource-constrained networks. IEEE Internet Things J. 2025, 12, 1098–1112.
22. Kwon, Y.; Kim, J. 5G–IoT co-design: Optimizing latency for time-critical sensor data. IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun. 2024, 23, 7652–7665.
23. Rahman, F.; Ali, T. Comparative evaluation of LEACH, MULE, and hybrid routing protocols in next-generation WSNs. Comput. Netw. 2023, 237, 110627.
24. Tanwar, S.; Singh, D. 5G-enabled sensor communication and its implications for edge intelligence. IEEE Netw. 2024, 38, 52–59.
25. Ghosh, A.; Panda, S. Modeling energy consumption in 5G-enabled WSN frameworks. IEEE Syst. J. 2024, 18, 3210–3221.
26. Dey, R.; Singh, T. Quantum noise modelling and its impact on QKD-based IoT security. Future Internet 2024, 16, 210.
27. Watanabe, A.; Suzuki, M. Performance evaluation of QKD over metropolitan networks with realistic photon loss. J. Lightwave Technol. 2024, 42, 7850–7862.
28. Bera, S.; Roy, S. Low-latency 5G communication for real-time sensor networks. Sensors 2024, 24, 5123.
29. Chen, Z.; Long, Y. Joint latency–security optimization in 5G-enabled cyber–physical systems. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2025, 72, 944–955.
30. Aldossary, M.; Alqahtani, S. Quantum-safe communication for IoT using hybrid classical–quantum models. Electronics 2023, 12, 989.
2. Zhao, T.; Li, Y.; Liang, H. Low-power routing strategies for large-scale wireless sensor deployments. IEEE Internet Things J. 2023, 10, 15432–15445.
3. Ahmed, M.; Rehman, S.; Kim, H. Energy-aware cluster-based WSN architectures: A survey of recent advances. ACM Trans. Sen. Netw. 2024, 20, 18.
4. Gupta, R.; Patel, D. 5G-enabled IoT: Performance evaluation for ultra-low-latency sensor communications. IEEE Commun. Mag. 2023, 61, 72–78.
5. Mehmood, A.; Khan, I.; Alazab, A. Edge-assisted 5G IoT networks for real-time analytics: Opportunities and challenges. Future Gener. Comput. Syst. 2024, 152, 389–402.
6. Pirandola, S.; Andersen, U.L.; Banchi, L. Advances in quantum cryptography. Adv. Opt. Photon. 2023, 15, 1–95.
7. Mosca, M.; Muratov, A. Cybersecurity in the quantum era: Assessing post-quantum readiness. IEEE Secur. Priv. 2024, 22, 30–38.
8. Zhang, Z.; Xu, Y.; Huang, H. QKD-enabled IoT: A survey on quantum-safe communication for constrained devices. Sensors 2024, 24, 4560. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/s24124560
9. Ren, L.; Wang, K.; Liu, Y. Experimental QKD in noisy channels: Performance limits and QBER stability. Opt. Express 2023, 31, 31245–31260.
10. Ng, S.; Wong, R. Hybrid classical–quantum architectures for secure distributed systems. In Proceedings of the IEEE Globecom, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 4–8 December 2023; pp. 1–6.
11. Ghiasi, A.; Bahrami, A.; Liu, J. Integrating quantum cryptography into 6G/IoT frameworks: Challenges and future trends. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2024, 20, 1893–1906.
12. Bhattacharya, P.; Chakraborty, R. Security vulnerabilities in modern WSN deployments: A systematic review. Comput. Secur. 2024, 135, 103149.
13. Shor, P.W. Algorithms for quantum computation: Discrete logarithms and factoring. In Proceedings of the 35th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, Santa Fe, NM, USA, 20–22 November 1994; pp. 124–134.
14. Roetteler, M.; Naehrig, M.; Svore, K.M. Quantum resource estimates for computing elliptic curve discrete logarithms. Adv. Cryptol. ASIACRYPT 2023, pp. 241–270.
15. Chen, L.; Jordan, S.; Liu, Y.-K. Post-quantum cryptography and long-term security considerations for IoT networks. NIST Tech. Rep. 2024, 1–45.
16. Scarani, V.; Bechmann-Pasquinucci, H.; Lütkenhaus, N. The security of practical QKD implementations. Rev. Mod. Phys. 2024, 96, 025003.
17. Xu, F.; Ma, X.; Zhang, Q. Quantum key distribution with realistic imperfections: A tutorial. IEEE Trans. Quantum Eng. 2023, 4, 1–25.
18. Sharma, A.; Rao, K. Feasibility of QKD for low-power IoT devices: Modelling and analysis. IEEE Access 2024, 12, 5567–5583.
19. Akhtar, M.; Basu, S. Lightweight QKD integration in WSNs: Energy and security implications. Sensors 2023, 23, 9803.
20. Li, P.; Wang, J.; Han, T. Quantum-secure clustering for wireless sensor networks: A performance study. Ad Hoc Netw. 2024, 159, 103254.
21. Dimitriou, T.; Papadopoulos, P. QBER-driven adaptive key refresh for resource-constrained networks. IEEE Internet Things J. 2025, 12, 1098–1112.
22. Kwon, Y.; Kim, J. 5G–IoT co-design: Optimizing latency for time-critical sensor data. IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun. 2024, 23, 7652–7665.
23. Rahman, F.; Ali, T. Comparative evaluation of LEACH, MULE, and hybrid routing protocols in next-generation WSNs. Comput. Netw. 2023, 237, 110627.
24. Tanwar, S.; Singh, D. 5G-enabled sensor communication and its implications for edge intelligence. IEEE Netw. 2024, 38, 52–59.
25. Ghosh, A.; Panda, S. Modeling energy consumption in 5G-enabled WSN frameworks. IEEE Syst. J. 2024, 18, 3210–3221.
26. Dey, R.; Singh, T. Quantum noise modelling and its impact on QKD-based IoT security. Future Internet 2024, 16, 210.
27. Watanabe, A.; Suzuki, M. Performance evaluation of QKD over metropolitan networks with realistic photon loss. J. Lightwave Technol. 2024, 42, 7850–7862.
28. Bera, S.; Roy, S. Low-latency 5G communication for real-time sensor networks. Sensors 2024, 24, 5123.
29. Chen, Z.; Long, Y. Joint latency–security optimization in 5G-enabled cyber–physical systems. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 2025, 72, 944–955.
30. Aldossary, M.; Alqahtani, S. Quantum-safe communication for IoT using hybrid classical–quantum models. Electronics 2023, 12, 989.
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